区块链技术POS,区块链技术开发费用

近年来，区块链技术POS（Proof of Stake）越来越受到关注。它是一种投票机制，可以替代传统的挖矿机制，用于验证区块链网络交易的有效性。POS机制的出现也使得区块链技术开发费用大大减少，更多的企业和开发者可以更轻松地进入区块链技术的开发领域。

那么，POS机制和区块链技术开发费用之间有哪些关系呢？今天，我们就来聊聊POS机制、挖矿机制和智能合约这三个与区块链技术开发费用相关的关键词。

POS机制（Proof of Stake）是一种投票机制，它可以替代传统的挖矿机制来验证区块链网络交易的有效性。POS机制的工作原理是：网络中的每个节点都可以投票，投票节点的数量越多，它就越有可能被选举为下一个区块的矿工。因此，POS机制可以有效地减少挖矿机制所需的计算能力，从而降低区块链技术开发的成本。

挖矿机制（Mining Mechanism）是区块链技术验证交易有效性的一种机制，它是一种竞争性的机制，参与者需要提供计算能力来解决复杂的数学问题，以获得报酬。但挖矿机制所需的计算能力较大，使得参与者需要投入大量的成本来参与挖矿，从而导致区块链技术开发费用也相对较高。

智能合约（Smart Contract）是一种可以自动执行的程序，它可以用来实现双方的交易条款，可以让双方的交易变得更加安全、可靠、高效。智能合约可以大大减少交易中的中介成本，使得参与者可以更轻松地参与到区块链技术开发中，从而降低区块链技术开发费用。

以上就是POS机制、挖矿机制和智能合约这三个与区块链技术开发费用相关的关键词的介绍，希望能够对大家有所帮助。

『一』What will happen after Ethereum merges/turns to PoS?

What will happen after Ethereum merges/turns to PoS? Today is the day of Ethereum merger , many people are very concerned about it, and many people also have questions about what will happen after POS after the merger of Ethereum. Let’s take a look with the editor. I hope this article can help you.
What will happen after Ethereum merges/moves to PoS
Many debates have arisen before the merger is officially announced, and they will continue to exist long after the merger.
Ethereum’s move to Proof-of-Stake (PoS) can be considered one of the most important events in the crypto industry. Speculation and misinformation are rife. Here we discuss the facts and consequences of this technological experiment.
It should be emphasized that the developers’ decision to switch from the original consensus protocol Proof of Work (PoW) to PoS has been several years in the making. BeaconChain (Beacon Chain) is the fork of the Ethereum blockchain responsible for using PoS and was initially launched on December 1, 2020 for development and testing.
There is no doubt that the shift from PoW to PoS will lead to changes in the perception of Ethereum as a network. There are many perspectives to consider: Economics, Environment, Token Economics, Competition with Other Cryptocurrencies, Legal, Centralization vs. Decentralization Ultimately, the changes that Ethereum’s switch from PoW to PoS will bring to the blockchain and to crypto as a whole A turning point for the community.
Ethereum becomes sustainable, but Bitcoin will be in a league of its own
Adopting PoS as the consensus mechanism will lead to a significant reduction in the energy required by the Ethereum blockchain.
Several studies have concluded that due to the merger, Ethereum will reduce electricity consumption by 99.95% after implementing PoS, a fact that cannot be ignored.
The first event after the implementation of PoS will be that Ethereum’s hash rate plummets to zero, representing the end of an era. Any user with ETH can become a validator. They can also earn rewards by staking ETH in the protocol.
The most immediate impact of the merger will be how the media pays more attention to Bitcoin and the environmental damage it causes. Investors who prefer PoW mechanism blockchains are hesitant to invest in Ethereum. For example, Tesla abandoned its original proposal to use Bitcoin as a means of payment due to its carbon footprint.
With PoS, Ethereum provides a clear path for any investor who must follow ESG standards (environmental, social and governance standards), inject funds into ETH, or invest in companies related to Ethereum activities Especially so.
In this way, Bitcoin remains a target for the media, while Ethereum avoids the most controversial issues surrounding cryptocurrencies in recent years.
Regulators will have fewer arguments against Ethereum
It is known that regulators have long wanted to intervene in the crypto market or establish certain ground rules. On the one hand, it seems that due to the smaller size of the crypto market, they are in no rushfor intervention. But on the other hand, they observed that the long-term growth of cryptocurrencies could endanger national currencies.
But due to the versatility among crypto projects, regulating cryptocurrencies is not a simple task. So regulators have to start somewhere, and sustainability issues seem to have been the overarching argument for choosing to regulate cryptocurrencies.
PoW is one of the reasons why cryptocurrencies are unsustainable, so regulators are considering banning it. Some regulators claim that mining cryptocurrencies through PoW should be banned due to its high electricity consumption.
MiCA, the encryption regulatory bill released by the EU, had already included a ban on PoW mining, although it was ultimately delayed. In the United States, the latest report from the White House pointed out that the impact of cryptocurrency and corresponding blockchain technology on greenhouse gas emissions, pollution, and noise remains high, which hinders federal agencies from achieving net-zero carbon pollution consistent with U.S. climate commitments and goals s hard work.
In the report, Ethereum is believed to be responsible for 20-39% of the electricity expenses generated by mining cryptocurrencies, while Bitcoin is estimated to be 60-77%. As Ethereum moves to PoS, regulators will not be able to use this argument to continue opposing the blockchain. This provides a layer of assurance for crypto businesses built on Ethereum.

『二』How to learn blockchain technology_How to understand blockchain technology

1. Technical language

Python and Go Language is a technical language mentioned in many companies’ recruitment. Need to prioritize learning. Moreover, these two languages ​​​​also have great applications in the direction of sliding technology outside of the blockchain. For example, Go is used in the background construction of large-scale concurrent systems, and Python is used in the construction of artificial intelligence systems. So learning these two languages ​​is a priority.

2. Technical framework

Master one or more of Bitcoin, ETH and Hyperledger. Needless to say, BTC is written in C at the bottom level. A large number of currency projects, such as Litecoin, Dash, Monero, zcash, etc., all use Bitcoin technology for secondary development.

ETH is the representative of blockchain 2.0, and various application Dapps can be built on the ETH network. Nowadays, a large number of application blockchain projects are developed using the ETH platform.

Hyperledgerfabric is a blockchain development platform strongly promoted by IBM. It is mainly used for the development of alliance chains and is currently the most popular alliance chain development platform.

3. Algorithm

POW (Proof of Work Algorithm), POS (Proof of Stake Algorithm), PBFT (Byzantine Fault Tolerance Algorithm), etc. are all important in the cryptography part of the blockchain Composition, a full understanding of these algorithms will help you have a better understanding of the cryptography part when participating in the underlying development of blockchain projects.

(2) Blockchain technology pos extended reading:

Blockchain technology isIt is a distributed accounting technology. Its characteristics are that it is decentralized, open and transparent, allowing everyone to participate in the establishment of the database, and each created data cannot be tampered with, and everyone participates. The problem of trust between strangers is also solved.

Blockchain technology has emerged. It is an accounting technology that allows all people to participate. The transaction information and data between AB are made public and cannot be tampered with. Everyone knows this. happens, then there is no need for any authoritative third-party C, or everyone in the system plays the role of C. This is also called decentralization.

『三』The origin and design concept of POS mechanism

Origin of POS

In 2012, the background was that POW became a toy for capital players, and computing power It is too centralized and may be subject to a "51% attack" at any time.

The developer Sunny Kind proposed the concept of POS (Proof of Stake) for the first time, which is completely different from POW.

POS does not require a lot of computing power to maintain network security. As long as participants open their own wallets to increase their weight online, they will receive corresponding rewards, which is interest.

POS design concept

We should all know that Bitcoin’s block production will be halved every four years, so the block production will become less and less. , miners will "absent from work" because they earn less and less.

Then, if the number of people is small, Bitcoin may be mastered by some people with high computing power, and the digital currency network will be paralyzed.

POS solution: Not all blocks are obtained by mining. As long as you open the wallet client program, you can find the blocks and get interest, so there will be a diversion Effect.

The POS mechanism can be described as a kind of virtual mining. Whereas POW mainly relies on the scarcity of computer hardware to prevent witch attacks, POS mainly relies on the tokens in the blockchain itself.

Attack of the Witch

This name is based on the movie of the same name adapted from the 1973 novel "The Witch". The heroine has 16 personalities.

Because nodes join and exit at any time, in order to maintain the stability of the network, the same data may be backed up on many nodes. This is the data redundancy mechanism.

If there is a malicious node on the network, then this node will have multiple identities. Then this malicious node may trick other nodes into backing up to it.

POW is random based on computing power, while POS is random based on property ownership. POW is the mechanism that keeps Bitcoin, currently Ethereum, and many other blockchains secure.

However, the POW algorithm has been criticized for damaging the environment and wasting electricity during the mining process. POS attempts to solve these problems by replacing the concept of mining with a different mechanism.

Advantages of PoS

It is no longer necessary to consume a large amount of electricity in order to generate blocks safely. Since large amounts of energy are no longer required, the pressure to incentivize participants to continue participating in the network by issuing new coins will decrease. Under the PoS mechanism, the number of transactions that the entire network can process per second increases, which can provide better performance than the PoW mechanism.

POS algorithm is capitalism

The more money you have, the greater rights you get. Why?

Because the more money you have in it, the greater your desire to maintain the system. If there is a malicious attack, their money will be wasted.

POS Algorithm

If I have 500 tokens, put them into the POS mechanism, so that the 500 tokens inside become validators. Suppose It is the latest block in the blockchain.

The POS algorithm will randomly select a validator and give them the right to generate the next block.

The security of the PoS mechanism is guaranteed by the shareholders themselves, and the working principle is the bundling of interests. In this mode, people who do not hold PoS cannot pose a threat to PoS. The security of PoS depends on the holder and has nothing to do with any other factors.

The PoS mechanism stems from people’s dissatisfaction with and improvements to the PoW mechanism. The early PoS mechanism had various flaws. As various projects continue to improve the PoS mechanism, PoS is gradually becoming the mainstream consensus mechanism.

『四』 What are the core blockchain technologies of blockchain technology?

What is the hottest topic on the Internet right now? You don’t need to tell me what the editor is saying, that is Blockchain technology, but many friends have only heard of this technology and do not have much in-depth understanding of it. So what are the blockchain technologies? Below we will bring you an introduction to the core technology of blockchain for your reference.
What are the core elements of blockchain technology?
Blockchain technology can be a public ledger (visible by anyone) or a permissioned network (visible only by those authorized), which solves supply chain challenges , because it is an immutable record that is shared among network participants and updated in real time.
Blockchain technology----data layer: designing the data structure of the ledger
Core technology 1. Block + chain:
Technically speaking, block is a data structure that records transactions. Reflects the flow of funds for a transaction. Transactions that have been concluded in the systemBlocks are connected together to form a main chain, and all nodes participating in the calculation record the main chain or a part of the main chain.
Each block consists of a block header and a block body. The block body is only responsible for recording all transaction information in the previous period, mainly including the number of transactions and transaction details; the block header encapsulates the current version number, previous A block address, timestamp (recording the time when the block was generated, accurate to the second), random number (recording the value of decrypting the answer to the math question related to the block), the target hash value of the current block, and the Merkle number Root value and other information. From a structural point of view, most functions of the blockchain are implemented by the block header.
Core technology 2. Hash function:
The hash function can convert data of any length into a set of fixed-length codes through the Hash algorithm. The principle is based on a cryptographic one-way hash function. This kind of function is easy to verify, but difficult to crack. Usually, the industry uses y=hash(x) to represent it. This hash function implements operations on x to calculate a hash value y.
Commonly used hash algorithms include MD5, SHA-1, SHA-256, SHA-384 and SHA-512, etc. Taking the SHA256 algorithm as an example, inputting any string of data into SHA256 will result in a 256-bit Hash value (hash value). Its characteristics: the same data input will get the same result. As long as the input data changes slightly (for example, a 1 becomes a 0), a completely different result will be obtained, and the result cannot be predicted in advance. Forward calculation (calculating the corresponding Hash value from the data) is very easy. Reverse calculation (cracking) is extremely difficult and is considered impossible under current technological conditions.
Core technology 3. Merkle tree:
Merkle tree is a hash binary tree, which can be used to quickly verify the integrity of large-scale data. In the blockchain network, the Merkle tree is used to summarize all transaction information in a block, and ultimately generates a unified hash value of all transaction information in the block. Any change in transaction information in the block will cause Merkle tree changes.
Core technology 4. Asymmetric encryption algorithm:
Asymmetric encryption algorithm is a key secret method that requires two keys: public key and private key. The public key and the private key are a pair. If the public key is used to encrypt data, only the corresponding private key can be used to decrypt it, thereby obtaining the corresponding data value; if the private key is used to sign the data, then only the corresponding public key can be used to sign the data. In order to verify the signature, the sender of the verification information is the holder of the private key.
Because encryption and decryption use two different keys, this algorithm is called an asymmetric encryption algorithm, while symmetric encryption uses the same key in the encryption and decryption processes.
Blockchain technology----network layer: realize the decentralization of accounting nodes
Core technology 5. P2P network:
P2P network (peer-to-peer network), also known as point-to-point technology, is no Central server, relying on user groups to exchange informationInternet system. Unlike a centralized network system with a central server, each client in a peer-to-peer network acts as both a node and a server. Domestic Xunlei software uses P2P technology. The P2P network has the characteristics of decentralization and robustness.
Blockchain technology----Consensus layer: allocate the task load of accounting nodes
Core technology 6. Consensus mechanism:
Consensus mechanism is how to reach consensus among all accounting nodes to identify The validity of a record is both a means of identification and a means of preventing tampering. There are currently four main types of consensus mechanisms: PoW, PoS, DPoS and distributed consensus algorithms.
PoW (Proof of Work, proof of work): PoW mechanism, which is like Bitcoin’s mining mechanism, miners package existing transactions that have not been recorded by the network into a block, and then continue to traverse and try to find a random number , so that the hash value of the new block plus the random number meets certain difficulty conditions. Finding a random number that meets the conditions is equivalent to determining the latest block of the blockchain, and is also equivalent to obtaining the current round of accounting rights of the blockchain. Miners broadcast blocks that meet the mining difficulty conditions in the Yuanfu network. After verifying that the block meets the mining difficulty conditions and that the transaction data in the block meets the protocol specifications, other nodes in the entire network will each Blocks are linked to their own version of the blockchain, thereby forming a network-wide consensus on the current network state.
PoS (ProofofStake, Proof of Stake): PoS mechanism requires nodes to provide proof of a certain number of tokens to obtain a distributed consensus mechanism for competing for blockchain accounting rights. If you rely solely on the token balance to determine the bookkeeper, you will inevitably make the rich win, which will lead to the centralization of bookkeeping rights and reduce the fairness of the consensus. Therefore, different PoS mechanisms use different methods to increase the amount of money based on the proof of equity. The randomness of accounting rights avoids centralization. For example, in the PeerCoin PoS mechanism, the Bitcoin with the longest chain age has a greater chance of obtaining accounting rights. NXT and Blackcoin use a formula to predict the next accounting node. The more tokens you own, the greater the probability of being selected as an accounting node. In the future, Ethereum will also switch from the current PoW mechanism to a PoS mechanism. Judging from the information currently available, Ethereum's PoS mechanism will use nodes to place bets on the next block. The winner of the bet will receive an additional Ethereum currency award. Those who do not win will be deducted Ether coins to reach consensus on the next block.
DPoS (DelegatedProof-Of-Stake, share authorization certificate): DPoS is easy to understand and is similar to the modern corporate board of directors system. The DPoS mechanism adopted by BitShares is that shareholders vote to select a certain number of witnesses. Each witness has two seconds of authority to generate blocks in order. If the witness cannot generate a block within the given time slice, The block generation authority is given to the witness corresponding to the next time slice. Shareholders can change at any time by votingthese witnesses. This design of DPoS makes the generation of blocks faster and more energy-saving.
Distributed Consistency Algorithm: Distributed Consistency Algorithm is based on traditional distributed consistency technology. Among them are Byzantine fault-tolerant algorithms that solve the Byzantine Generals problem, such as PBFT (Byzantine fault-tolerant algorithm). In addition, distributed consensus algorithms (Pasox, Raft) that solve non-Byzantine problems are not explained in this article. This type of algorithm is currently a commonly used consensus mechanism in alliance chain and private chain scenarios.
Taken together, POW is suitable for public chains. If you build a private chain, it is more suitable to use POS because there is no trust problem in verification nodes; and because there are untrustworthy local nodes in the alliance chain, it is more suitable to use DPOS.
Blockchain technology----Incentive layer: Develop a "salary system" for accounting nodes
Core technology 7. Issuance mechanism and incentive mechanism:
Take Bitcoin as an example. Bitcoins are initially rewarded by the system to miners who create new blocks, and this reward is halved approximately every four years. At the beginning, miners were rewarded with 50 Bitcoins for each new block recorded, and this reward is halved approximately every four years. By analogy, by around AD 2140, newly created blocks will no longer receive rewards from the system. By then, the total number of Bitcoins will be approximately 21 million. This is the total number of Bitcoins, so it will not increase indefinitely.
Another source of incentives is transaction fees. When there are no system rewards for newly created blocks, the miners' income will change from system rewards to transaction fees. For example, when you transfer, you can specify 1% of it as a handling fee to be paid to the miner who records the block. If the output value of a transaction is less than the input value, the difference is the transaction fee, which will be added to the incentive for that block. As long as a given amount of electronic currency has entered circulation, the incentive mechanism can gradually be converted to rely entirely on transaction fees, so there is no need to issue new currency.
Blockchain technology----Contract layer: giving the ledger programmable features
Core technology 8. Smart contract:
Smart contract is a set of programmed rules and logic that respond to scenarios. Implemented by decentralized, trusted shared script code deployed on the blockchain. Usually, after the smart contract is signed by all parties, it is attached to the blockchain data in the form of program code, and is recorded in a specific block of the blockchain after being propagated through the P2P network and verified by nodes. Smart contracts encapsulate a number of predefined states and transition rules, scenarios that trigger contract execution, response actions under specific scenarios, etc. The blockchain can monitor the status of smart contracts in real time, and activate and execute the contract by checking external data sources and confirming that specific trigger conditions are met.
The above is what blockchain technologies the editor has brought to you? All content of the introduction to the core technology of blockchain.

『Wu』What technology does the blockchain apply to achieve this function?

The blockchain applies the following technologies to achieve it
The first is the consensus mechanism, the commonly used consensus The mechanisms mainly include PoW and PoS, DPoS, PBFT, PAXOS, etc. Since there is no center in the blockchain system, there needs to be a preset rule to guide the nodes of all parties to reach an agreement on data processing. All data interactions must be carried out in accordance with strict rules and consensus;
The second It is cryptography technology. Cryptography technology is one of the core technologies of blockchain. Many classic algorithms of modern cryptography are used in current blockchain applications, mainly including: hash algorithm, symmetric encryption, asymmetric encryption, digital Signature etc.
The third type is distributed storage. Blockchain is a distributed ledger on a peer-to-peer network. Each participating node will independently and completely store and write block data information. The advantages of distributed storage compared with traditional centralized storage are mainly reflected in two aspects: data information is backed up on each node to avoid data loss due to single point failure; data on each node is stored independently, effectively avoiding Malicious tampering with historical data.
Smart contracts: Smart contracts allow trusted transactions without a third party. As long as one party reaches the pre-set goals of the agreement, the contract will automatically execute the transaction. These transactions are trackable and irreversible. It has the advantages of transparency, credibility, automatic execution, and mandatory performance. Blockchain technology has many unique features that make it a unique invention and give it unlimited horizons to explore.

『Lu』 Are there 7 core technologies for blockchain operation that you should know?

How many of the 7 core technologies for blockchain operation do you know?
1. Blockchain links
As the name suggests, blockchain is a chain composed of blocks. Each block is divided into two parts: block header and block body (including transaction data). The block header includes the hash (PrevHash) value (also called hash value) of the previous block used to implement block linking and the random number (nonce) used to calculate the mining difficulty. The hash value of the previous block is actually the hash value of the header of the previous block, and the rules for calculating random numbers determine which miner can obtain the power to record the block.
2. Consensus Mechanism
Blockchain was born with Bitcoin and is the basic technical architecture of Bitcoin. Blockchain can be understood as a decentralized accounting system based on the Internet. Decentralized digital currency systems like Bitcoin require blockchain to ensure the consistency of accounting by honest nodes without a central node. Therefore, the core of blockchain technology is a consensus mechanism that reaches consensus on the legality of transactions among individuals who have no basis for trust in each other without central control.
There are currently four main categories of blockchain consensus mechanisms: PoW, PoS, DPoS, and distributed consensus algorithms.
3. Unlocking scripts
Scripts are an important technology for automatic verification and automatic execution of contracts on the blockchain. Each output of each transaction does not strictly point to an address, but to a script. A script is like a set of rules that govern how the recipient can spend the assets locked on this output..
The legality verification of transactions also relies on scripts. Currently it relies on two types of scripts: locking scripts and unlocking scripts. The locking script is a condition added to the output transaction, implemented through a script language, and is located at the output of the transaction. The unlocking script corresponds to the locking script. Only if the conditions required by the locking script are met, the corresponding assets on this script can be spent, which is located at the input of the transaction. Many flexible items can be expressed through scripting language. The interpretation script is similar to a "virtual machine" in our programming field, which is distributed and runs on every node in the blockchain network.
4. Transaction Rules
Blockchain transactions are the basic units that constitute blocks, and are also the actual effective content that the blockchain is responsible for recording. A blockchain transaction can be a transfer or other transactions such as the deployment of smart contracts.
In the case of Bitcoin, a transaction refers to a payment transfer. The trading rules are as follows:
1) The input and output of the transaction cannot be empty.
2) For each input of the transaction, if its corresponding UTXO output can be found in the current transaction pool, the transaction will be rejected. Because the current transaction pool is a transaction that has not been recorded in the blockchain, and each input of the transaction should come from a confirmed UTXO. If found in the current transaction pool, it is a double spend transaction.
3) For each input in the transaction, its corresponding output must be UTXO.
4) Each input unlocking script must work with the corresponding output locking script to verify the compliance of the transaction.
5. Transaction Priority
The priority of blockchain transactions is determined by the blockchain protocol rules. For Bitcoin, the priority of a transaction being included in a block is determined by the time it takes for the transaction to be broadcast to the network and the size of the transaction. As the time it takes for a transaction to be broadcast to the network increases and the chain age of the transaction increases, the priority of the transaction is increased and will eventually be included in the block. For Ethereum, the priority of a transaction is also related to the transaction fee that the publisher of the transaction is willing to pay. The higher the transaction fee that the publisher is willing to pay, the higher the priority of the transaction being included in the block.
6.Merkle proof
The original application of Merkle proof is the Bitcoin system (Bitcoin), which was described and created by Satoshi Nakamoto in 2009. The Bitcoin blockchain uses Merkle proofs in order to store transactions in every block. This makes the transaction unable to be tampered with and makes it easy to verify whether the transaction is included in a specific block.
7.RLP
RLP (Recursive Length Prefix, recursive length prefix encoding) is a main encoding method for object serialization in Ethereum. Its purpose is to encode any nested sequence of binary virtual data. Lu Ji

『撒』 What is blockchain technology, how does itHow to change business and financial models

What is blockchain technology, and how does it change business and financial models? Joining the EU and NATO is just a cake-cake given by the West to satisfy hunger. In fact, at least in the current conflict between Russia and Ukraine, and before Russia and Ukraine fail to completely resolve the border issue, the dreams of the EU and NATO are just a dream for Ukraine! In Zhuang Ci's view, the positioning of basic subject research centers should be high enough and can be built on the basis of research institutes or universities with good foundations. The government should provide sufficient and stable support funds. An ideal operating model is to follow the example of Japan. "World's Top International Research Center (WPI)" program.